Compare Contrast the Theme of Horror in Frankenstein and Macbeth Essay Example

Compare Contrast the Theme of Horror in Frankenstein and Macbeth Paper Michelle Cardwell English Literature – Understanding Literature Compare Contrast the use of ‘horror’ in Shakespeare’s Macbeth and Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein The gothic horror genre is a favourite for many readers. We love the suspense and mystery, the desperation, the doom and gloom, the claustrophobia, even the blood. But most of all we love the fear the feeling we get that gives us pathos with the protagonist that keeps us on the edge of our seats and propels us to turn the page. How do Shelley and Shakespeare provoke our reactions when reading Macbeth (Shakepeare,1606) and Frankenstein (Shelley, 1818)? When comparing and contrasting the two texts an awareness of the different formats is necessary: Macbeth is a play and Frankenstein a novel written in the epistolary format. In a novel the use of descriptive language, often including metaphor â€Å"her hair was the brightest living gold† (Ch I, pg 35) or simile â€Å"one vast hand was extended , in colour and apparent texture like that of a mummy† (Ch 24, pg 204) enables the reader to visualise the scene. When Victor Frankenstein is describing the monsters ‘birth’ he tells us: it was already one in the morning; the rain pattered dismally against the panes, and my candle was nearly burnt out† (Chapter V, pg 59) In a play, the scene will be set by a director. We take clues from the dialect regarding environment, â€Å"so foul and fair a day I have not seen† (I, 3, 36), we know the battle is won so foul must refer to the weather. Thoughts are conveyed through asides â€Å"Glamis, and Thane of Caw dor: The greatest is behind† (I, 3,115-116), Macbeth has thoughts which he cannot share with Banquo, but Shakespeare needs to make the point that the seed is planted. We will write a custom essay sample on Compare Contrast the Theme of Horror in Frankenstein and Macbeth specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Compare Contrast the Theme of Horror in Frankenstein and Macbeth specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Compare Contrast the Theme of Horror in Frankenstein and Macbeth specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Another contrast between the two works is the date; In Elizabethan times the genre of horror was not referred to. The works of authors such as Shakespeare, Sackville, and Webster were referred to as ‘Tragedies’ although they had many gothic elements. They were based on history, mainly Greek mythology interesting to note as Shelley’s novel is based on the tale of Prometheus, the titan who was challenged by Zeus to form a man from clay, (Theoi Greek Mythology, 2010). The main ingredient of the gothic novel is the atmosphere of mystery and suspense. Shelley and Shakespeare use similar techniques to create this atmosphere. Shelley, writing in an age of discovery, uses the fear of the unknown; whereas Shakespeare bases Macbeth on the fear of the supernatural. Frankenstein was written in a time when scientists were going crazy in the quest to find answers to everything the concept of a mad scientist would not be so unbelievable. In the mid 1700’s Franklin discovered that lightening was electrical, Volta invented the battery in 1800 and in 1818 Blundell performed the first human blood transfusion (Bone, 2007) – three relevant discoveries that demonstrate the novels appeal. When Shakespeare wrote Macbeth human thinking was very different to today; every misfortune was blamed on supernatural forces, hence the popularity of superstition. There are many elements of superstition in Macbeth, including the owl, the raven and of course numerous references to the power of three three witches, three prophecies and the use of â€Å"thrice† in the witches incantations: â€Å" thrice to thine, and thrice to mine, and thrice again, to make up nine† (I, 3, 33-34). Shelley builds a fear of the unknown through vagueness in several parts of the story. When Walton describes his first encounter with the monster, â€Å"We perceived a low carriage, fixed on a sledge and drawn by dogs, pass on towards the North, but at the distance of half a mile: a being which had the shape of a man, but apparently of gigantic stature, sat in the sledge, and guided the dogs. We watched the rapid progress of the traveller with our telescopes, until he was lost among the distant inequalities of the ice† (Letter IV, pg 26) No explanation is given about where he came from or how he got there herefore we are forced to look at the implicitness of this inclusion. Walton then changes subject making the previous subject seem indifferent, however the reader is left wondering what unnatural event has been foreshadowed. In chapter four Victor tells Walton of his obsessive behaviour but will not divulge his secret, leaving the reader in as much suspense as Victor’s audience. â€Å"I see by your eagerness, and the wonder and hope which your eyes expr ess, my friend, that you expect to be informed of the secret with which I am acquainted; that cannot be† (Ch 4, pg 54) Like Shakespeare, Shelley uses elements of supernatural forces, the monster seems to appear from nowhere at various stages – always foreshadowing tragedy, much the same way as the witches do in Macbeth. She is keen to inform us that, unlike the characters in Macbeth, Victor is not affected by superstition, â€Å"I do not ever remember to have trembled at a tale of superstition, or to have feared the apparition of a spirit† (Ch 4, pg 53). This is a complete contrast to the eponymous hero in Shakespeare’s play. Macbeth is traumatised by the appearance of several apparitions including that of Banquo’s ghost: thou canst not say I did it; never shake thy gory locks at me! † (III, 4, 50-51). Although Shakespeare’s play is predominantly supernatural, Shelly focuses on the unnatural rather than supernatural. The very ‘birth’ of the monster is unnatural, but the same can be said of Macbeth, being born by caesarean section. Macbeth’s creation is completely natural and within Gods laws, in Shelley’s novel Victor is playing the role of God by creating a living being that is not conceived and nurtured in the womb. The monster although designed by Victor to be â€Å"beautiful† (Ch 5, pg 59) is actually quite the opposite: his yellow skin scarcely covered the work of muscles and arteries beneath; his hair was of a lustrous black, and flowing; his teeth of a pearly whiteness; but these luxuriance’s only formed a more horrid contrast with his watery eyes, that seemed almost of the same colour as the dun white sockets in which they were set, his shrivelled complexion and straight, black lips. †(Ch 5, pg 59) The imagery the reader conjures up is of a horrid, hideous zombie-like creature. The witches in Macbeth are also described as unnatural; What are these, so wither’d and wild in their attire,That they look not like th’inhabitants o’th’earthAnd yet are on’t ? Live you, or are you aughtThat man may question? † (I, 3, 37- 41) What both works definitely have in common is the element of madness brought on by ambition. However the subject of the ambition is a huge contrast; Frankenstein wishes to create a life, while Macbeth wishes to destroy a life. The reasoning for both is the same; they believe they are acting for the good of mankind; Macbeth believes that if the witches have proclaimed it then it must be so; the king’s murder is a necessity. Macbeth is an ambitious man who on hearing the witches prophecy, seeks the opinion of his wife and takes advantage of her ruthfulness. However after the murder, Macbeth becomes indifferent to his wife’s and determines to hold on to his greatness. He murders anyone who stands in his way, including children. Throughout the play hallucinations and apparitions haunt Macbeth, and we get a sense that his lack of sleep and his conscience are sending him mad. In Frankenstein, Victor is driven by his ambition to â€Å"banish disease from the human frame, and render man invulnerable to any but violent death! (Ch 2, pg 41). He becomes obsessed with his quest and like Macbeth his sleep suffers: â€Å"I had worked hard for nearly two years, for the sole purpose of infusing life into an inanimate body. For this I had deprived myself of rest and health† (Ch 5, pg59) The main difference here is Frankenstein loses sleep prior to the event due to his obsession to reach his goal; Macbeth loses sleep after the event as a result of his conscience and paranoia: â€Å"sleep no more, Macbeth does murder sleep’, the innocent sleep† (II, 2, 38-39). Both works use many elements of gothic horror within their texts. Shelley’s Frankenstein also meets the criteria of the science fiction novel through its focus on fear of the unknown. Both have elements of stormy weather, settings within castles and macabre, explicit descriptions. The use of extreme emotion is apparent in both, with both Lady Macbeth and Victor fainting at crucial moments. Both protagonists attempt to play God, Frankenstein even acknowledges this, â€Å"A new species would bless me as its creator† (Ch 4, pg 54). The tragic hero is evident in both works both built up then brought down by a tragic flaw, their obsessive ambition. The tragic irony is that both can only be redeemed by their own deaths. Both works are didactic pieces, intended to make the reader take haste when pursuing unrealistic ambitions, as Walton does and abandons his quest. The moral of both stories is a classic basis for the gothic horror: â€Å"El suano del la razon produce montruos† Francisco Goya 1797(The sleep of reason produces monsters) Bibliography Bone, M. 2007. Timeline of Scientific Discoveries. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www. wattpad. com/22971-timeline-of-scientific-discoveries. tml. [Accessed 23 February 11]. Goya F, 1797. The Artchive. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www. artchive. com/artchive/G/goya/goya_sleep_of_reason. jpg. html. [Accessed 20 February 11]. Shakespeare, W 2009 [1606]. Macbeth: Oxford School Shakespeare. Oxford University Press, UK. Shelley, M 2001[1818]. Frankenstein (Cliffs Complete).. Cliffs Notes. Wiley. New Jersey Theoi Greek Mythology. 2010. Prometheus: Greek Titan. [ONLINE] Available at: h ttp://www. theoi. com/Titan/TitanPrometheus. html. [Accessed 20 February 11].

How does Seamus Heaney use language to create a rural Irish scene in digging Essays

How does Seamus Heaney use language to create a rural Irish scene in digging Essays How does Seamus Heaney use language to create a rural Irish scene in digging Paper How does Seamus Heaney use language to create a rural Irish scene in digging Paper Essay Topic: Literature Seamus Heaney does a number of things to create the rural Irish scene. Some of the rhyming that he used would not rhyme unless done with an Irish accent, such as sound, ground and down. These are very special northern Irish sounds that have to be used. Also he is dispassionate during the poem like using the word rump instead of a nice word such as lower back. Also the farming aspect creates the typical Irish farmer vision, through generations and generations they are farming. Also he alliterates with buried the bright edge deep using allied consonants. Snug as a gun is assonance because snug and gun are very similar words. Seamus also reminisces about his father and his grandfather. The word lug is a very Irish word and is not commonly used in mainland English. Lug means the straight top part of the spade. Seamus describes how he is digging metaphorically with his pen, for his future generations to come. It is his equivalent of the families spade. Seamus avoids using euphemisms during his poem to produce the harsh reality of what is really there. Squelch and slap is an onomatopoeia meaning a word that sounds likes what it means. There is no regular rhyming pattern throughout the poem. Heaneys father has great skill when it comes to digging, levered firmly and By God, the old man could handle a spade. This shows the reader that country life is not all easy, and even to work on a farm, you need to have quite a lot of skill. The images produced by these words are very effective because they give the reader a picture of a man who is not only digging, but also doing it with immense skill, which is not something, which we usually associate with a job like that. This poem is also about the admiration and respect, which Heaney shows towards his father. The words such as straining show that Heaneys father was working very hard, as he did not break very often because he stooped in rhythm. It is these words, which conjure up such image of Heaneys father never stopping unless he has finished a job, so the images produced, are very effective, because they help us to understand the young boys admiration for his father. Country life is therefore seen as difficult, but there is also the family element too. Heaney wants to be like his father, but the difference between this poem and Follower is that Heaney realises that he has no spade to follow men like them. The continuation of farming from Heaneys grandfather, to Heaneys father, the old man could handle a spade. Just like his old man shows the reader that country life is very family orientated, and professions are often carried down from father to son. The images of Heaneys father being taught to dig by his father are very powerful and effective, because they show the reader the strong bonds between people on a farm, and in country life generally. The last line, The squat pen rests. Ill dig with it. show that in the country, it is often expected that people like Heaney will follow in their fathers footsteps, but Heaney is seen here to choose to be a writer. The images of Heaney digging out his memories with pen are very effective because the reader can visualise the likeness between poetry and farming. However, the image is also a surprise, because Heaney says in Follower that he wants to be like his father, but here he has changed his mind. There are three time stages throughout the poem. He talks about himself in the present tense. He speaks of himself in a poetic style. He talks about his father in both the past and present tense. For the present it is very poetic and skilled poetry he unromantically describes him as a straining rump but when he is talking of his father in the past tense it is a heroic, tense relationship. It is a vision of a small boy looking up at his father. The phrase bury the bright edge deep is like a scene out a gladiator in a battle. He talks about it very descriptively nicking and sticking going down and down. This poem consists of a free-flowing memory. It begins with him seeing his father in the present digging in flowerbeds, which then flows to the potato digging that, was done when he was a child, which flows to his grandfather digging up peat. This is like a self-justification of himself at the end of the poem, when he metaphorically digs with his pen like his forefathers did with a spade.

Stories told by Homer and Herodotous abiut women Essay

Stories told by Homer and Herodotous abiut women - Essay Example Even though a number of his stories were imaginary and others imprecise, he claims he was reporting only what was narrated to him and was yet frequently very near to right. Little is well-known of his private history (Peissel 2005, 40-56).The purpose of this essay is to discuss whether the stories narrated by Homer as well as Herodotus concerning women, their acts, and their kidnapping are supported by any proof that may make those tales amount to history Discussion: Reliability Whilst The Histories were sporadically criticized in relic, contemporary historians and philosophers usually take an optimistic outlook. Regardless of the controversy, Herodotus still acts as the key and regularly only, cause for proceedings in the Greek planet, Persian territory, and the area usually in the three centuries leading up until his own moment. Herodotus, similar to numerous ancient historians, favored a component of show to merely investigative history, targeting to give enjoyment with â€Å"thrilling events, huge dramas, and strange exotica.†As such, definite passages have been the topic of disagreement and even some distrust, both in ancient times and at present. The correctness of the writings of Herodotus has been contentious since his own period. Normally, although, he was at that time, and especially is currently, considered as reliable. Numerous philosophers (Aruban, Davidson, Poe, Wesley, Zelenko, Volley and Bernal) antique and current regularly cite Herodotus.

Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 38

Art - Essay Example The modern Conte crayons are in different assortment of colors that focus primarily on the nuances of shading and designing as opposed to bold coloration. Using Conte crayons, a skilled artist is capable of achieving very subtle shading that is almost photorealistic. Notably, Conte crayon often takes different mode of paining including graphite pencil painting, wax crayon, and watercolor among others (Avery 55). This is the initial stage of drawing and it is often referred to the mapping stage. This stage involves drawing ordinarily on white Lenox 100 paper using a graphite pencil (Avery 57). The above drawing is the road map to indicate where wax should follow. Applying wax on the above drawing leads to a wax crayon that is shown in the figure below The basis of using wax in this sketch is to protect areas that are intended to remain white; therefore, areas that are intended to be visible white are waxed. It is appropriate at this stage to use a reasonable amount of wax, for instance the size of the finger since that is would be sizable to cut. After this procedure, it is appropriate to slightly water the waxed surface to obtain a receptive and even surface. At this stage, it would be appropriate to introduce wash paint. In this case, a very light gray ink wash is introduced. Notably, the gray ink will not be used alone, but it will be mixed with small quantities of black ink. Mixing these two inks shall be done in a large presence of water (Avery 60). After obtaining the uniform ink, the solution is then applied or brushed onto the white paper. Notably, the waxed point will not darken like the rest of the drawing, but it will remain white. The media obtained herein is watercolor media and it is done below. This process can rep eat itself as many times and with different colors as possible, all the repetitions with depend on the artist and type of painting they intend to

Effect of Knowledge Sharing on Personal and Cultural Factors

Effect of Knowledge Sharing on Personal and Cultural Factors Theory of Knowledge With reference to two areas of knowledge discuss the way in which shared knowledge can shape personal knowledge. In this essay, we are faced with the question as to how shared knowledge can shape personal knowledge. Can the world be improved every time each individual contributes his own knowledge for the benefit of someone else? Is knowledge sharing the key to success? Initially, I will provide definitions of key-notions for better understanding of the difference between shared knowledge and personal knowledge, which is summarized by what â€Å"I know† and what â€Å"we know†. According to the Oxford Dictionaries, knowledge is defined as â€Å"facts, information, and skills acquired through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject†[1]. Personal knowledge is not certainly the same as community knowledge. What an individual knows or how an individual makes knowledge and what community knows are different matters. Personal knowledge is the knowledge acquired through observation or personal experiences by an individual[2]. Shared knowledge is the knowledge shared between people who exchange through information, skills, or expertise[3]. These definitions are neither the correct, nor only definitions of these terms. The classic general example would be with a patient that has a problem with his leg, where the surgeon would want to operate, the pharmacist would want to medicate, the physiotherapist would want to exercise the musco-skeletal system, the priest would pray and so on. Each of them would take its own approach based on his background and shared knowledge held by profession. However, knowledge sharing encompasses not only the sharing of â€Å"great things†, but equally the sharing of â€Å"little things† with the intention of improving the way things get done.[4] Natural Sciences and History provide plenty of examples which show unique study of the past and influence the present. To begin with, can we use a scientific method to develop personal knowledge from shared knowledge? Darwin’s famed evolutionary theories in On the Origin of Species, where the notion that all life is related and descended from a common ancestor: the birds and the bananas, the fishes and the flowers, all are related. The organism’s genetic code is altered as the genes mutate, of which the beneficial mutations remain because they ensure survival, a process called â€Å"natural selection†. Survival and adaption is determined by natural selection. Darwin’s theory became a theory in crisis in light of the tremendous advances made in molecular biology, biochemistry and genetics over the years. Thus shared knowledge led Darwin to concede that â€Å"if it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down†[5]. DNA testing reveals our genetic make-up and, along with genetics, is a means of helping scientists to establish reasoni ng behind how species have originated from a common ancestor. The Human Genome Project, through its sequencing of the DNA, can help us understand diseases including viruses and appropriate treatment, identification of different forms of cancer, the design of medication and their effects, advances in forensic and applied sciences, biofuels and other energy applications, agriculture, livestock breeding, bioprocessing; risk assessment, bioarcheology, anthropology, evolution. It becomes clear that knowledge is perishable, increasingly short lived and to get most things done you need to share with people to achieve your objectives[6]. On the other hand, for centuries people believed that life was created from elements and not from eggs, seeds or other ways of reproduction. The first to believe in this theory was Aristotle who based his thinking on the studies that Anaximander and Hippolytus had previously made and said that life came spontaneously like mud and earth when exposed to sunlight. The theory of the spontaneity of life continued to be believed for thousands of years after Aristotle until 1877, when Louis Pasteur proved that this theory was wrong. He showed that it was not possible for maggots to appear on meat in a sealed container[7]. Pasteur demonstrated that fermentation occurs through the growth of micro-organisms and the emergent growth of bacteria is due to biogenesis (all life from life). Thus the â€Å"personal knowledge† of difference is changing which then affects the whole group/the shared knowledge. Although truth is an objective requirement for knowledge, belief is a subjective requirement for it. Reason gives us greater certainty than perception or belief. What we often hear is said that science has proved something. â€Å"Every scientist knows that science advances only if knowledge is shared†, said Dr. Walt Warnick[8] . If scientific knowledge is not shared, then research may not be done accurately. It is better if scientists share their opinions and thoughts in order to progress and succeed in finding new aspects in several different fields. Every single scientist has to have the incentive to share, use and improve his judgment, disclose ideas or being open to everything is more correct. Scientific progress needs a background of careful observation and imagination plays an important role in the development of new scientific ideas. Thus, part of Copernicus’ genius was that while he saw what everyone else saw when he looked at the night sky, he came up with a di fferent way of looking at it, although this idea did not catch on when the Greek astronomer Aristarchus had suggested that the earth goes round the sun as early as the third century BC . Hence, the vast majority of our knowledge is neither personal nor individual but it is knowledge shared with the rest of the knowledge of the community. Despite the success of the natural sciences we need to keep in mind that they do not have a monopoly for knowledge. â€Å"History is but the register of human crimes and misfortunes† said Voltaire. History seeks to reconstruct past on the basis of evidence that can be found in the present. History is knowledge and â€Å"those who don’t study the past are condemned to repeat it† (George Santayana). The emerging concept of knowledge democracy addresses the relationships between knowledge production and distribution of knowledge. Although the Athenian democracy was based on open deliberation and voting and recognized this as a distinctive way of gaining knowledge about the world and acting upon that knowledge, it was depended also on the willingness of the citizen participants to accept the implicit assumptions they lived by, and the information on the basis of which they cast their votes. Athenian political culture was based on collective opinion rather than on cer tain knowledge and on the assumption that opinion could be translated on practical reality through democratic political process[9]. Thucydides developed what the world described as historical knowledge and he was supported by the majority of Athenians. Thus the personal knowledge of each Athenian became shared knowledge of all the Athenians and vice versa the shared knowledge of the majority of Athenians became personal knowledge of each one of them. History is not simply concerned with describing the past and explaining it. The study of history is something that can give us good judgment about human affairs. On the other hand, history, as a shared knowledge, is a defence against propaganda. One of the best known examples of the abuse of history is from the Stalinist era in the former Soviet Union and the propaganda within Nazi Germany. Communist propaganda in the Soviet Union was based on the Marxist-Leninist ideology to promote the Communist party. Propaganda was part of education, broadcast by any means possible from schools to cinema, with a goal to build a society on the basis of common ownership of the means of production, where the society would be completely under the control of the state. Propaganda is the art of persuasion and Joseph Goebbels was in charge in Nazi Germany of Hitler. His role was to control and censor information available to the German population that could subject the Nazi party to any hostile or damaging opinions. This meant that the pro-Nazi information broadcast to the public was ever more persuasive in nature. Hitler managed to convince 70 million rational people to engage in horrible atrocities and wage war against the world using his speeches and propaganda[10]. Thus history, which is shared knowledge, is concerned with the past and one obvious problem with trying to know the past is that it no longer exists. History is based on primary sources, but since they are selective interpretation of events they cannot always be taken at face value[11] since memory, emotion, sense perception, reason, faith, belief,language play an important role. In conclusion, what are the implications of this shared knowledge for one’s own individual knowledge? Personal experience, vision and inspiration can contribute to shared knowledge when that personal knowledge is communicated to and accepted by the community as it happened with Copernicus’ or Louis Pasteur’s theories. It could also be argued that the relationship between shared and personal knowledge is bi-directional and inseparable. But, shared knowledge of democracy shaped the personal knowledge of each Athenian. History of one’s own nation might give deeper understanding of one’s own past. Day- to- day work of scientists working within the â€Å"paradigm† has made scientists more aware and more receptive to the evolution of the scientific views, as Thomas Kuhn claimed. However, propaganda during Stalinist or Nazi era show that â€Å"paradigm† shifts are more likely in loose shared knowledge and may cause the total controversy of the world.[12] 1 [1] http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/knowledge [2] http://thelawdictionary.org/personal-knowledge/ [3] Frost, Alan.Knowledge Sharing. KMT. Retrieved 17 April 2013.(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_sharing) [4]  http://www.gurteen.com/gurteen/gurteen.nsf/id/ksculture [5] Political Dissent in Democratic Athens: Intellectual Critics p.35 [6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Project [7] http://www.toptenz.net/top-10-most-famous-scientific-theories-that-turned-out-to-be-wrong.php [8] http://www.osti.gv/home/ostiblog/knowledge-investment-curve-0 [9] http://web.stanford.edu/group/dispersed_author/docs/ThucydidesCriticism.pdf [10] http://brainblogger.com/2008/11/04/hitlers-guide-to-propaganda-the-psychology-of-coercion/ [11] Theory of Knowledge. Richard van de Lagemaat,p.320 [12] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn

Colonization

Although New England and the Chesapeake regions were settled largely by people of English origin, by 1700 the regions had evolved into two distinct societies. I have described both societies in an attempt to demonstrate their developments. Virginia Colony In 1607 a group of merchants established England s first permanent colony in North America at Jamestown, Virginia. They operated as a joint-stock company that allowed them to sell shares of stock in their company and use the pooled investment capital to outfit and supply overseas expeditions. This joint tock company operated under a charter from James I with a concern for bringing Christian religion to the native people. However, most of the settlers probably agreed with Captain John Smith that the real aim was profit rather than religion. Profits were elusive in the early years; expectations of gold and other minerals, trade with Indians for beaver and deer skins were not to be had by the colonists. Many Virginia colonists died of dysentery, malaria and malnutrition. The Virginia Company sent a diverse collection of people to Jamestown; there ere artists and glassmakers, as well as unskilled servants. Both types of people adapted poorly to the wilderness conditions. Relations between the colonists and the Indians were bitter from the beginning. John Smith dealt with the Indians by shows of force and the Indians withdrew trade with the English. Many settlers died of starvation in the first years. The discovery that tobacco would grow in the Chesapeake region was a salvation for Virginia. The planters shipped the first crop in 1617 and thereafter tobacco cultivation spread rapidly. By 1624, Virginia was xporting 200,000 pounds of tobacco; by 1638 the crop exceeded 3 million pounds. The cultivation of tobacco caused Virginia s planters to find a reliable supply of cheap labor. To fill this need, planters recruited immigrants from various countries. These immigrants were called indentured servants. They willingly sold a portion of their working lives in exchange for free passage across the Atlantic ocean. Many of the indentured servants were unemployed and held the lower class on the social ladder from their places of origin. Life for indentured servants was often a nightmare. If diseases did not kill them, many succumbed to the brutal work routine that harsh masters imposed upon them. When the remaining servants neared the end of their contract, masters would find ways to add time to the contracts. The profitable tobacco crops created an intense demand for land. As more and more colonists settled along the rivers that flowed in Chesapeake Bay, the local Indian tribes retaliated. The murder of an Indian captain triggered a fierce Indian assault that dealt a staggering blow to Virginia. This attack led to the bankruptcy of the Virginia Company. The surviving planters felt they had justified reasons for the destruction of the Indians. As more settlers arrived, more pressure was placed on the Indians for land. Wars over land was provoked in 1644 and again in 1675. In each of these conflicts, the colonizers were victorious. The native population of Virginia was reduced to less than 1,000 by 1680. Immigrants to the Chesapeake Bay region found existence difficult. Many immigrants arrived as indentured servants and could not marry until their time was paid. Once marriage was made, diseases claimed many within about seven years. Few children growing up could expect to have both parents alive. Widows and widowers often remarried soon after the death of their spouse, creating a complex web of family life. Because of mortality, the Chesapeake settlers remained, for most of the seventeenth-century, a land of immigrants rather than a land of settled families. Social institutions such as churches and schools took root very slowly. The Chesapeake region architecture showed the fragility of life in the tobacco growing environment. Settlers at first built primitive huts and shanties. After establishing crops, planters improved their habitats but still built ramshackle one-room dwellings. Even as Virginia and Maryland matured, cheaply built and cramped houses remained the norm. Life was too uncertain and the tobacco economy was too volatile. Massachusetts Bay Colony While some English settlers scrambled for wealth on the Chesapeake, others were seized by the spirit of religion. These individuals were known as Puritans. They aimed their efforts at reforming the corrupt new land. They wanted the new land to have a special mission in the world. The people attracted to the Puritan movement were not only religious reformers but also men and women who hoped to find changes in English society. They disapproved of the growing withdrawal from traditional restraints of individual action. They worried that individualistic behavior would undermine the notion of community involvement. This community involvement was the belief that people were bound together by reciprocal rights, obligations, and responsibilities. Puritans vowed to reverse the march of disorder, wickedness and disregard for community by imposing a new discipline. Their intention was to establish communities of pure Christians who collectively swore a covenant with God to work for his ends. Civil and religious transgressors were rooted out and severely punished. Their emphasis was on homogeneous communities where the good of the group outweighed individual interests. The first winter for the Puritans was harsh, more than 200 of the first 700 settlers died and 100 others returned to the England in the next spring. But Puritans kept coming. Motivated by their work ethic and sense of mission, the Puritans thrived almost from the beginning. The early leaders were university-trained ministers, experienced members of the lesser gentry and men with a compulsion to fulfill what they knew was God s prophecy for New England. Most of the ordinary settlers came as free men in with families. Trained artisans and farmers from the mid rank of English society, they established close communities where brutal exploitation of labor had no place. The Puritans built a sound economy based on agriculture, fishing, timbering and trading for beaver furs with local Indians. They also established the first printing press and planted they seed of a university, Harvard College. The Puritan leaders also created a tax-supported school system. In 1647, the government ordered every town with 50 families to establish an elementary school and every town with 100 families a secondary school as well. Although the Puritans had made many accomplishments, there were some dissenters from the Puritan way of life. In 1633, Salem s Puritan minister, Roger Williams, began to voice disturbing opinions on church and government policies. Williams denounced mandatory worship and argued that government officials should not interfere with religious matters. In 1634, Anne Hutchinson began to discuss religion, suggesting that the holy spirit was absent in the preaching of some ministers. Hutchinson also offended the male leaders of the colony because she boldly stepped outside the subordinate position expected of women. The village was the vital center of Puritan life. These villages were small and tightly held. Many farmers established agriculture fields set outside the village. Families lived close together in compact towns built around a common meeting place. These small, communal villages kept families in close touch. Land was istributed to individuals according to the size of his family, his wealth and his usefulness to the church and town. It was believed that every family should have enough land to sustain it, and prospering men were expected to use their wealth for the community s benefit, not for themselves. Women played a vital role in this family centered society. The presence of women and a stable family life strongly affected New England s architecture. Early economic gains were transformed into substantial housing. Well constructed one-room houses with sleeping lofts quickly replaced the huts. Parlors and lean-to kitchens were added as soon as possible. Education was stressed in Puritan communities. Placing religion at the center of their lives, Puritans emphasized the ability to read catechisms, psalmbooks and especially the Bible. The 20,000 English immigrants who had come to New England by 1649 were dispersed from Maine to Long Island. It was only natural that farmers wished for better farm land. To combat the problems of dispersion, Puritan leaders established a broad intercolony political structure in 1643 called the Confederation of New England. This first attempt at federalism managed to function fitfully for a generation. Although the Puritans built stable communities, developed the economy and constructed effective government, their leaders, as early as the 1640s, complained that the founding vision of Massachusetts Bay was faltering. Material concerns seemed to outweigh religious commitments and the individual prevailed over the community. However, New England had achieved economic success and political stability by the end of the seventeenth century. Towns functioned efficiently, poverty was uncommon, public education was mandated and family life was stable.

Christian Leader Audit Sample Essay

The Christian Leader Audit helps determine the overall strength of the leader as a Christian. Is the leader a strong Christian leader, above average Christian leader and so on? As Malphurs exclaims, as Christian leaders our â€Å"mandate is to lead Christianly regardless of the context.† This audits one’s commitment to Christ, godly character, reliance on God and ability to live by example. I scored a nine on the audit and according to my score I am a strong Christian leader. Practicing servant leadership was a given for me. It has always been a passion of mine to serve others in any way possible. I have always believed that you must lead by example. In student ministry this often means that I look for opportunities to serve students so that they can see in living color what being a servant looks like. Some examples would be sharing what I have with students. I find that any time I can share a meal with someone or share some money with someone in need that this a great opportunity for me to lead by example. Often, I find myself not just asking others to clean up but I join them in cleaning up. I try to make sure that I never have the attitude that I am â€Å"too good† to do something. As I further reflected on this audit I found that while most of the time I lead by the power of the Holy Spirit there are times when I launch out ahead of the Holy Spirit on my own. I often find myself praying that I would not get ahead of the Spirit but if I am honest I will admit that I get excited or at times frustrated and move out on my own. This was a good reminder for me that I must always be sensitive to God’s Spirit as I lead others making sure that I am staying in stride with God’s Spirit and not pulling ahead or falling behind. Aubrey Malphurs, Being Leaders:The Nature of Authentic Christian Leadership, (Grand Rapids, Michigan, Baker Books:2003), 13.